The following is a paper I wrote for a course in my Master's program at San Francisco State University. This paper may not be reprinted in whole or in part without the permission of the author, with the exception of provisions for fair use.
Abstract
Soon after the English language became a prominent subject of study in Japanese public schools more than a century ago, the successful teaching of the living, spoken language became a recurring problem. The lack of proficient speakers among instructors, large class sizes, adherence to old teaching techniques and the dominating influence of written university entrance exams all have contributed to a failure to produce students who can use the language well enough for purposes beyond their university entrance exams. This paper outlines the causes, analyzes why previous reforms have failed, and suggests a course of action that might lead to success in the future.
Hear No English, Speak No English
Past Failures of and Future Recommendations for Communicative Language Teaching in Japan
by Luis Hernan Poza
Introduction
It comes as no great surprise to someone who has taught English in Japan that there are problems in the effective teaching of spoken English in the public school system. In fact, one could even say that the vast network of English conversation schools in Japan owes its existence to this very lack. Japanese students usually study English for a minimum of 6 years in junior and senior high schools, and many continue to study the language in university. Despite this, very few students leave the system with the ability to speak English effectively.
A question which many seldom consider is whether or not this is necessarily a failure. Many Japanese students come out of the system with at least a moderate understanding of the structure of English, and can often read it with passable ability. When asked whether written or spoken English is more important, many Japanese will respond that written English is more important--with the primary reason being the need of this form to pass university entrance examinations.
But what of subsequent needs? Koike and Tanaka (1995) reported that a 1990 survey of college graduates revealed that more than half of the respondents felt they would need English in their business careers, and more than three-quarters felt oral communication should be emphasized at the high school level. Despite these numbers, though, most Japanese will not have a great need or even many opportunities to use English with native speakers.
However, the reasons for education often go beyond such stark practicalities. Passin (1965) presents a 17th-century Japanese Confucian scholar's views on education:
It would seem to me that the aim of education, elementary and advanced, is to clarify human relationships. In the elementary program of education the various human relationships are made clear, the essence of this education in human relationships being devotion to [or respect for] persons. (p. 169)
This ideology is reflected in one of the Japanese Ministry of Education's goals for language education, being "to help pupils develop through the foreign language a basic understanding of the daily living, manners and customs, views and so forth of the people daily using the language" (Brownell, 1967, p. 44). Language does not exist solely as a written medium, however. The spoken language is far more closely associated with "daily living, manner, customs and views." It often communicates feelings and attitudes more effectively than writing. It is reasonable to say that there is much to be gained on the communicative level than from the written language alone.
History of English Language Education from the Meiji Era
Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, English very quickly became recognized as the one tongue which would best open the door to form contacts of commercial, legal, political and social value. The recognition was based on the prestige of English political and legal institutions, the widespread tentacles of English commerce, and the exceptional influence of the United States in the early days of Japanese relations with foreign nations. (Brownell, 1967, p. 41)
Due to the strong involvement of Americans at the time Japan opened its doors to the West, English became the predominant foreign language in Japanese education. Early in the Meiji era, Japan inaugurated its first public schools with English as a required course (Koike & Tanaka, 1995). Most teachers in the first few decades of the program were either native English speakers or Japanese who had studied abroad, and the early results were positive. Brownell quotes one observer who noted that the reasons for success "were inherent in the situation; ... students were learning in English and through English, but never about English..." (p. 41). This was arguably a more communicative environment.
As Japan's educational system became more established, however, the language of instruction shifted to Japanese, and teaching materials and teacher training followed official guidelines which adhered to the grammar translation method. Despite the recognition of problems within the system, repeated attempts at reform failed to succeed. British linguist Harold E. Palmer introduced an "oral method" in the 1920's which put forth that the most effective way to learn a language was through actively speaking and listening; reading and writing were excluded (Yamamoto, 1978). Although the method was spread throughout Japan, it failed to catch on. In the coming years, increasing tensions and war between Japan and the West put English education in limbo.
During the occupation which followed World War II the Japanese school system was restructured and more oral-aural teaching systems were officially instituted. These changes again failed to catch on. In 1960 a review was performed and audio-lingual methods again promoted, only to fail again. Reforms in 1975 which beefed up teacher training and installed language laboratories nationwide similarly failed, and the 1985 JET program which introduced thousands of native-speaker Assistant Language Teachers to Japan's public high schools also has been somewhat ineffective. In 1987, a course called Aural Oral Communication A, B and C was introduced, emphasizing speaking, listening and intercultural understanding; while the results are still not in, actual changes in teaching and learner performance are slow to materialize.
Causes of the Failure of Communicative Methods
The continued failure to effectively teach English to students in Japanese public schools has been an issue for nearly a century. During that time, a host of possible causes have been examined, including the following seven factors:
1. Persistence of grammar translation method
2. Lack of speaking opportunities in an EFL setting
3. Teachers unable to speak the language well
4. Lack of sufficient teacher training
5. Large class sizes (40 students or more)
6. Lack of student motivation and need for oral communication
7. Influence of university entrance examinations
1. Persistence of the Grammar Translation Method
It is usually assumed that Japan acquired the grammar translation method from the West with other aspects of modern education, but Nobuyuki Hino (1988) points out that the method, called "yakudoku" in Japanese, has been in use in Japan for as long as a thousand years. This method of learning has great disadvantages aside from its lack of an oral-aural component; according to Hino, it "limits the speed at which the student reads, induces fatigue, and reduces the efficiency with which s/he is able to comprehend" (p. 47). In addition, sources of reading are often inappropriate and far too difficult; it can be argued that Shakespearean dramas like The Merchant of Venice are far too complex, and cannot provide an accurate view of modern English language or Western culture. Brownell (1967) argues that with such texts, translation will become more important than comprehension.
Aside from tradition, there is the natural tendency of teachers to "fall back on the methods and techniques by which they were taught" (Slater). I myself feel more comfortable with a deductive style of grammar presentation when learning a foreign language, not because it is a better way of learning, but rather because it is the way I am used to. Public school teachers in Japan are consistently overworked--attending meetings, presiding over club activities, counseling students and performing administrative tasks--that they seldom have much time to construct lesson plans. It is all too easy for teachers to fall back on a method which not only is easier to prepare for, but is also familiar and comfortable to them.
2. Lack of Speaking Opportunities in an EFL Setting
In a country as homogenous as Japan, there is no question that this factor has a great effect on EFL learning. I worked as an English teacher in the countryside prefecture of Toyama in the late 1980's, and was one of only thirty non-Asian foreigners in the entire prefecture of one million people. This disparity caused a great deal of distraction for me as almost every English language student who met me viewed me as an opportunity to practice spoken English. Even in metropolitan areas, such opportunities do not often present themselves. While foreign residents and tourists in public may be tapped as a potential source for interaction, there are simply far too many students in need of a speaking partner, and far too few native English speakers to satisfy the demand.
The JET program has introduced the greatest potential for speaking opportunities so far, but regrettably this resource is unused for the most part; most Japanese teachers of English who control the way Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs) are put to use simply use them as human tape recorders.
3. Teachers Unable to Speak the Language
One of the problems most often recognized is the fact that the teachers of English courses themselves usually cannot speak English well. It goes without saying that this creates a great deal of difficulty if the objective of the class is to teach students how to speak the language. To make this problem worse, in Japanese classrooms the students' respect for their teacher greatly depends on the teacher's authority as an expert on the subject being taught; students are often discouraged and deprived of an important role model when they realize their teachers cannot speak the language they are teaching.
Naturally, strengthened language requirements for teachers of this subject would prove useful, but it is far from certain that enough qualified teachers with sufficient speaking proficiency could be found to fill the need. Teacher education would be the next best solution. According to Brownell (1967), The Council for the Improvement of English Language Teaching recommended in 1960 "prompt and continuous nationwide inservice training to strengthen the hearing and speaking of teachers of English." Unfortunately, the program's offerings were less than effective, and few of the overworked teachers could take the time to participate in the classes. These conditions persist to this day.
4. Lack of Sufficient Teacher Training
Japanese public school teachers are typically not required to have any special TESOL certification or training in linguistics. English teachers in Japan may receive as little as two weeks of training before starting in their positions, and subsequent training may be spotty and too difficult to attend because of crowded schedules. According to Brownell (1967):
While there has been some progress in teacher training, a sober estimate indicates that the improvement needed both in teacher preparation programs and among the more than 60,000 practicing teachers of English has not received systematic national attention, especially with regard to financing retraining programs for classroom teachers. (p. 56)
5. Large Class Sizes
Adding to the obstacles already faced by teachers is the large size of classes in Japanese public high schools. Classes are usually between 40 and 50 students in size, making speaking opportunities and individual attention to students problematic even with the best lesson planning and execution. This problem has not gone unnoticed, either; Koike and Tanaka (1995) quote an education reform committee's conclusion that classes were too large to control, and Gregory Clark, president of Tama University and a member of the consultative committee, complains that for a "nation with a GNP per head higher than the U.S. actually [to decree] that classes should have more than 40 students to save spending on teachers is an educational atrocity" (Clark).
While cultural explanations about group orientation have been trotted out to rationalize these large class sizes, it seems more reasonable to conclude that it is more of a cost-saving measure, especially when one considers the overwhelming workload of teachers in light of long-standing recognition that they have too much work to give enough attention to the students themselves.
6. Lack of Student Motivation and Need for Oral Communication
As I noted in the introduction, an important question to ask is what need the students have for spoken English. Without a clearly established need or goal, students without a specific personal interest in speaking English will lack motivation. While there are long-range needs for the students--from abstract ones such as the broadening of one's social perspective and more concrete ones such as English for business purposes--students are not likely to be conscious of these needs, especially with the more pressing need of passing entrance exams.
For written English there is certainly no lack of motivation; most students in Japanese high schools are focused primarily on the exams, which focus on the written language. The English in the exams, however, is often far from authentic, and when the need evaporates after entering university, so will the motivation to maintain the skill and to expand upon it.
7. Influence of University Entrance Examinations
This brings us to what is most often recognized as the main culprit in this dilemma. Entrance exams, via their power to determine the course of students' lives, have become the focal point of Japanese education. Since one's career is often determined by which university one attended, and since the university one attends is determined by these exams, students and their teachers slavishly attend to the vagaries of the tests, focusing their energies on answering the questions as they are expected to be answered. Since these exams focus on written English, the content of English classes nationwide has followed for almost a century--despite what has been recommended by panels and committees for reform. Brownell (1967) quotes the chairman of the English Teachers Conference as far back as 1914:
Middle school students cannot grasp by an [sic] ear the general meaning of even simple sentences. It is true that pupils could not express their ideas in English and neglected the study of the coloqual [sic]. But for that the higher schools were responsible. It would be easy to remedy that defect if only the higher schools would have oral tests bearing on speaking and hearing besides the written examination. That some kind of oral tests other than dictation should be introduced into the entrance examination for higher schools [sic]. (p. 51)
While there have been repeated plans to integrate oral-aural components into entrance exams, few schools actually have them today, primarily universities that specialize in foreign language studies. Many schools have added a listening section to their exams, but oral tests are mostly absent, perhaps due to the logistics involved, as well as difficulties in consistent evaluation. There is also the question of how this would actually affect curriculum--clearly education planning is not at its zenith when it is primarily test-driven.
Possible Solutions
So far we have established two basic facts: one, that there have been repeated attempts over the last century to effectively teach spoken English in Japanese public schools, and two, that these attempts have repeatedly failed. The remedies included changes in curriculum, attempts at increasing teacher training and language abilities, expansion of language programs, and hiring of ALTs in vast numbers. However, each of these remedies seem to have been thwarted by deeper problems within the system: test-driven curriculum, lack of funds, overworked teachers, cutbacks to relieve overworked students and lack of organization and planning.
Therefore, it is evident that for future reforms to be useful, they have to address more than just surface concerns. The most promising solutions I can identify are:
1. Establishment and identification of student goals
2. Increased requirements and training for ALTs
3. Increased requirements for English language ability and TESOL training in teachers
4. Modification of university entrance exams
1. Establishment and Identification of Student Goals
Certainly we are all familiar with the sentiment of high school students who say "what am I going to need all this for?" when presented a course of study they are not personally interested in. Japanese high school students have the need to pass university entrance examinations, but this is a poor need to focus one's education on. It is artificial and temporary. Not only should the goal of passing these exams be dealt with (see # 4 below), but new, more productive goals should be established, and the students should be made aware of them.
As established earlier, many students will have to use English in their future careers. To make this fact more immediate and real to the students, perhaps the teaching materials should be changed to reflect these specific needs. Data could be gathered from real people in Japan who use English in their careers, and integrated into lesson plans in addition to travel, correspondence and other potential uses already recognized. Perhaps students themselves could be asked to consider what other possible uses they would have for language, and lessons could be shaped around their perceived needs.
Another established purpose for language study is that of broadening the students' horizons and helping them understand foreign cultures and perspectives. Instead of dense literary texts, why not introduce writings (or even video presentations) that present views and ideas of people who have achieved this understanding. Making the process real and meaningful to the students will help establish a strong foundation for the learning process, and will make cultural and communicative elements of the lesson more significant. Goals should be a constant part of that process, whether they are immediate or long-term.
2. Increased Requirements and Training for ALTs
Presently, the potential of ALTs in the JET program are enormously unrealized. The complaint has been made that Japanese teachers do not do enough to utilize them, but the counter-claim that most ALTs are not qualified to teach is also valid. The ALTs are presently of use primarily as language models; this need, however, could be filled almost as well with multimedia materials. This lack of interaction between ALTs and both teachers and students hardly qualifies as "team-teaching."
To make full use of the potential of the program, ALTs should be qualified teachers with training suited for the specific population they will teach, and Japanese teachers should be trained in ways to utilize them more effectively. With these modifications, real team-teaching could be accomplished. The Japanese teacher could call on the ALT to take on part of the teacher's burden of activity planning and instruction. For example, under the Japanese teacher's supervision, the two could split the class into two groups and handle them separately: the Japanese teacher could give instruction in Japanese, introducing forms and answering students' concerns, while the ALT could interact with the students in English. This kind of team-teaching would not only serve the need for more and better interaction in an EFL environment, but also the dilemma of large class sizes.
3. Increased Requirements for English Language Ability and TESOL Training in Teachers
Most of the time spent in English classes, however, is without a native-speaker ALT, and the Japanese English teacher is left to his or her own resources in language instruction. One of the advantages a non-native instructor has with students is to act as a role model of a successful language learner; students not only see a model of success for them to follow, but also feel that, having been through the process of learning a language, the teacher can identify with the students and help them through their difficulties.
In addition to language skills, teachers should also be required to have at least some training or certification in TESOL--a qualification which is presently not required in most schools. Instructors hired to teach English at public schools are often given minimal training in this respect, and without training, will commonly fall back on the methods used to teach them.
English teachers presently employed should be given the opportunity to improve their skills. Such training has been attempted, however, without much success. In order for these teachers to make progress, they must be given what they need to make it work. Schools will have to make serious commitments toward giving teachers the time and opportunity to attend training regularly, and, if possible, sabbaticals to study abroad.
Hiring policy should also be changed so that new teachers are required to have the prerequisite skills. However, this change would be dependent on the availability of teachers who meet the new requirements; this prerequisite might have to be compromised by a necessary extent until the marketplace catches up. Of course, teachers with greater English speaking skills and TESOL qualifications should be given priority in new hirings.
4. Modification of University Entrance Exams
Many solutions have been forwarded to deal with the problems of the test-driven curricula created by entrance examinations. The two most common suggestions tend to be either to add oral-aural components to the existing exam, thereby driving curriculum towards a more communicative state, or to abolish English from entrance exams altogether, freeing teachers to form curricula based on sound teaching theory instead of rote memorization for test-taking.
Both ideas have their merits, but there are pitfalls as well. Adding oral-aural components to entrance exams would ensure that these skills would be taught, but the focus of teaching would remain on passing the test instead of actually being communicative. If a test-driven curriculum is the problem, it should not be solved by trying to engineer tests to improve curriculum, but rather to engineer curriculum based on sound teaching theory and then constructing tests to make sure these skills were taught effectively. There is also the problem of evaluation; while listening skills can be tested relatively simply via comprehension exercises, evaluating oral skills would require one-to-one interviews, calling for a great deal more manpower and increased difficulty in evaluation consistency. Performance anxiety might also increase relative to written exams, especially if foreign examiners were used.
The difficulty of changing the system so radically, however, makes the alternate suggestion of doing away with English on entrance exams that much more attractive. It would certainly solve the problem of test-driven curricula, but the fact would remain that university entrance exams are of paramount importance to students, and if English were no longer a part of it, students might begin to neglect their studies in the subject in favor of others still vital to their futures. Some educators may feel this prospect is preferable to the alternative, however. Clark feels that it is "far better to have [students] undertake proper language education after they enter university" (Clark) than to have them exposed to test-driven language teaching.
There remains a third possibility: pare down the English exams to a level where only a small core of English language skills would be necessary to pass the English portion of entrance examinations. If the number of teaching hours per week dedicated to English language were not subsequently reduced, this strategy might free teachers from having to shape curriculum to fit the tests while still retaining the status of a required subject. Despite the pitfalls presented by instrumental motivation to pass the exams, it is still a motivation and may be useful.
Conclusion
There still remians the feasibility of executing reform. While I believe that the above recommendations will be effective and are all technically possible, it is questionable if such changes would actually be instituted, even if they were to be recommended by the Ministry of Education itself. In order for most of the above recommendations to be implemented, systems of hiring and training teachers, and of designing, implementing and evaluating curriculum would have to be significantly altered by institutions throughout Japan--institutions shot through with bureaucracies famous for their reluctance to change. Perhaps this is the central problem which must be addressed after all.
References
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Clark, Gregory (n.d.). Changing the education system. 100 years, 100 views. <http://www.japantimes.co.jp/100/100-12.html>
(1997, November 23).
Fukuda, Shohachi (1975). The four-year teacher-training project: Its operations and achievements. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 15-22.
Hino, Nobuyuki (1988). Yakudoku: Japan's dominant tradition in foreign language learning. JALT Journal, 10, 45-55.
Koike, Ikuo, & Tanaka, Harumi (1995). English in foreign language education policy in Japan: Toward the twenty-first century. World Englishes, 14, 13-25.
Passin, Herbert (1965). Society and education in Japan. New York: Teachers College Press.
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Yamamoto, Norman Y. (1978). The oral method: Harold E. Palmer and the reformation of the teaching of the English language in Japan. English Language Teaching Journal, 32, 151-158.